Recommendations

People have the right to be involved in discussions and make informed decisions about their care, as described in NICE's information on making decisions about your care.

Making decisions using NICE guidelines explains how we use words to show the strength (or certainty) of our recommendations, and has information about prescribing medicines (including off-label use), professional guidelines, standards and laws (including on consent and mental capacity), and safeguarding.

1.1 Thermometers and the detection of fever

Oral and rectal temperature measurements

1.1.1

Do not routinely use the oral and rectal routes to measure the body temperature of children aged 0 to 5 years. [2007]

Measurement of body temperature at other sites

1.1.2

In infants under the age of 4 weeks, measure body temperature with an electronic thermometer in the axilla. [2007]

1.1.3

In children aged 4 weeks to 5 years, measure body temperature by one of the following methods:

  • electronic thermometer in the axilla

  • chemical dot thermometer in the axilla

  • infra-red tympanic thermometer. [2007]

1.1.4

Healthcare professionals who routinely use disposable chemical dot thermometers should consider using an alternative type of thermometer when multiple temperature measurements are required. [2007]

1.1.5

Forehead chemical thermometers are unreliable and should not be used by healthcare professionals. [2007]

Subjective detection of fever by parents and carers

1.1.6

Reported parental perception of a fever should be considered valid and taken seriously by healthcare professionals. [2007]

1.2 Clinical assessment of children with fever

1.2.1

First, healthcare professionals should identify any immediately life‑threatening features, including compromise of the airway, breathing or circulation, and decreased level of consciousness. [2007]

Assessment of risk of serious illness

1.2.3

Assess children with feverish illness for the presence or absence of symptoms and signs that can be used to predict the risk of serious illness using the traffic light system (see table 2). [2013]

1.2.4

When assessing children with learning disabilities, take the individual child's learning disability into account when interpreting the traffic light table. [2013]

1.2.5

Recognise that children with any of the following symptoms or signs are in a high-risk group for serious illness:

  • pale/mottled/ashen/blue skin, lips or tongue

  • no response to social cues

  • appearing ill to a healthcare professional

  • does not wake or if roused does not stay awake

  • weak, high-pitched or continuous cry

  • grunting

  • respiratory rate greater than 60 breaths per minute

  • moderate or severe chest indrawing

  • reduced skin turgor

  • bulging fontanelle. [2013]

1.2.6

Recognise that children with any of the following symptoms or signs are in at least an intermediate-risk group for serious illness:

  • pallor of skin, lips or tongue reported by parent or carer

  • not responding normally to social cues

  • no smile

  • wakes only with prolonged stimulation

  • decreased activity

  • nasal flaring

  • dry mucous membranes

  • poor feeding in infants

  • reduced urine output

  • rigors. [2013]

1.2.7

Recognise that children who have all of the following features, and none of the high- or intermediate-risk features, are in a low-risk group for serious illness:

  • normal colour of skin, lips and tongue

  • responds normally to social cues

  • content or smiles

  • stays awake or awakens quickly

  • strong normal cry or not crying

  • normal skin and eyes

  • moist mucous membranes. [2013]

1.2.8

Measure and record temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate and capillary refill time as part of the routine assessment of a child with fever. [2007]

1.2.9

Recognise that a capillary refill time of 3 seconds or longer is an intermediate-risk group marker for serious illness ('amber' sign). [2013]

1.2.10

Measure the blood pressure of children with fever if the heart rate or capillary refill time is abnormal and the facilities to measure blood pressure are available. [2007]

1.2.11

In children older than 6 months do not use height of body temperature alone to identify those with serious illness. [2013]

1.2.12

Recognise that children younger than 3 months with a temperature of 38°C or higher are in a high-risk group for serious illness. (Note that some vaccinations have been found to induce fever in children aged under 3 months.) [2013]

1.2.13

Recognise that children aged 3 to 6 months with a temperature of 39°C or higher are in at least an intermediate-risk group for serious illness. [2013]

1.2.15

Recognise that children with tachycardia are in at least an intermediate‑risk group for serious illness. Use the Advanced Paediatric Life Support criteria in table 1 to define tachycardia. [2013]

Table 1 Advanced Paediatric Life Support criteria for tachycardia

Age

Heart rate (beats per minute)

Less than 12 months

More than 160

12 to 24 months

More than 150

2 to 5 years

More than 140

1.2.16

Assess children with fever for signs of dehydration. Look for:

  • prolonged capillary refill time

  • abnormal skin turgor

  • abnormal respiratory pattern

  • weak pulse

  • cool extremities. [2007]

Symptoms and signs of specific illnesses

1.2.17

Look for a source of fever and check for the presence of symptoms and signs that are associated with specific diseases (see table 3). [2007]

Meningococcal disease and bacterial meningitis

Also see the NICE guideline on bacterial meningitis and meningococcal disease.

1.2.18

Consider meningococcal disease in any child with fever and a non‑blanching rash, particularly if any of the following features are present:

  • an ill-looking child

  • lesions larger than 2 mm in diameter (purpura)

  • a capillary refill time of 3 seconds or longer

  • neck stiffness. [2007]

1.2.19

Consider bacterial meningitis in a child with fever and any of the following features:

  • neck stiffness

  • bulging fontanelle

  • decreased level of consciousness

  • convulsive status epilepticus. [2007, amended 2013]

1.2.20

Be aware that classic signs of meningitis (neck stiffness, bulging fontanelle, high-pitched cry) are often absent in infants with bacterial meningitis. [2007]

Herpes simplex encephalitis
1.2.21

Consider herpes simplex encephalitis in children with fever and any of the following features:

  • focal neurological signs

  • focal seizures

  • decreased level of consciousness. [2007]

Pneumonia
1.2.22

Consider pneumonia in children with fever and any of the following signs:

  • tachypnoea (respiratory rate greater than 60 breaths per minute, age 0 to 5 months; greater than 50 breaths per minute, age 6 to 12 months; greater than 40 breaths per minute, age older than 12 months)

  • crackles in the chest

  • nasal flaring

  • chest indrawing

  • cyanosis

  • oxygen saturation of 95% or less when breathing air. [2007]

    Be aware that some pulse oximeters can underestimate or overestimate oxygen saturation levels, especially if the saturation level is borderline. Overestimation has been reported in people with dark skin. See also the NHS England Patient Safety Alert on the risk of harm from inappropriate placement of pulse oximeter probes.

Urinary tract infection
Septic arthritis or osteomyelitis
1.2.24

Consider septic arthritis or osteomyelitis in children with fever and any of the following signs:

  • swelling of a limb or joint

  • not using an extremity

  • non-weight bearing. [2007]

Kawasaki disease
1.2.25

Be aware of the possibility of Kawasaki disease in children with fever that has lasted 5 days or longer. Additional features of Kawasaki disease may include:

  • bilateral conjunctival injection without exudate

  • erythema and cracking of lips, strawberry tongue, or erythema of oral and pharyngeal mucosa

  • oedema and erythema in the hands and feet

  • polymorphous rash

  • cervical lymphadenopathy. [2019]

1.2.26

Ask parents or carers about the presence of these features since the onset of fever, because they may have resolved by the time of assessment. [2019]

1.2.27

Be aware that children under 1 year may present with fewer clinical features of Kawasaki disease in addition to fever, but may be at higher risk of coronary artery abnormalities than older children. [2019]

For a short explanation of why the committee made the 2019 recommendations and how they might affect practice, see the rationale and impact section on Kawasaki disease.

Full details of the evidence and the committee's discussion are in evidence review A: Signs and symptoms predicting Kawasaki disease.

Imported infections

1.2.28

When assessing a child with feverish illness, enquire about recent travel abroad and consider the possibility of imported infections according to the region visited. [2007]

Be aware that some pulse oximeters can underestimate or overestimate oxygen saturation levels, especially if the saturation level is borderline. Overestimation has been reported in people with dark skin. See also the NHS England Patient Safety Alert on the risk of harm from inappropriate placement of pulse oximeter probes.

Table 2 Traffic light system for identifying risk of serious illness [2013]

Refer to table 1 in the NICE guideline on suspected sepsis if a child presents with fever and symptoms or signs that indicate possible sepsis.

Children with fever and any of the symptoms or signs in the red column should be recognised as being at high risk. Similarly, children with fever and any of the symptoms or signs in the amber column and none in the red column should be recognised as being at intermediate risk. Children with symptoms and signs in the green column and none in the amber or red columns are at low risk. The management of children with fever should be directed by the level of risk.

This traffic light table should be used in conjunction with the recommendations in this guideline on investigations and initial management in children with fever.

A colour version of this table is available on the NICE tools and resources page.

Green – low risk

Amber – intermediate risk

Red – high risk

Colour

(of skin, lips or tongue)

  • Normal colour

  • Pallor reported by parent/carer

  • Pale, mottled, ashen or blue

Activity

  • Responds normally to social cues

  • Content or smiles

  • Stays awake or awakens quickly

  • Strong normal cry or not crying

  • Not responding normally to social cues

  • No smile

  • Wakes only with prolonged stimulation

  • Decreased activity

  • No response to social cues

  • Appears ill to a healthcare professional

  • Does not wake or if roused does not stay awake

  • Weak, high-pitched or continuous cry

Respiratory

  • Nasal flaring

  • Tachypnoea: respiratory rate

  • >50 breaths per minute, age 6 to 12 months;

  • >40 breaths per minute, age more than 12 months

  • Oxygen saturation less than or equal to 95% in air

  • Crackles in the chest

  • Grunting

  • Tachypnoea: respiratory rate more than 60 breaths per minute

  • Moderate or severe chest indrawing

Circulation and hydration

  • Normal skin and eyes

  • Moist mucous membranes

  • Tachycardia:

  • More than 160 beats per minute, age less than 12 months

  • More than 150 beats per minute, age 12 to 24 months

  • More than 140 beats per minute, age 2 to 5 years

  • Capillary refill time more than or equal to 3 seconds

  • Dry mucous membranes

  • Poor feeding in infants

  • Reduced urine output

  • Reduced skin turgor

Other

  • None of the amber or red symptoms or signs

  • Age 3 to 6 months, temperature more than or equal to 39°C

  • Fever for more than or equal to 5 days

  • Rigors

  • Swelling of a limb or joint

  • Non-weight bearing limb or not using an extremity

  • Age less than 3 months, temperature more than or equal to 38°C

  • Non-blanching rash

  • Bulging fontanelle

  • Neck stiffness

  • Status epilepticus

  • Focal neurological signs

  • Focal seizures

Note that some vaccinations have been found to induce fever in children aged under 3 months.

Table 3 Summary table for symptoms and signs suggestive of specific diseases [2013]

Diagnosis to be considered

Symptoms and signs in conjunction with fever

Meningococcal disease

Non-blanching rash, particularly with 1 or more of the following:

  • an ill-looking child

  • lesions larger than 2 mm in diameter (purpura)

  • capillary refill time of more than or equal to 3 seconds

  • neck stiffness

Bacterial meningitis

Neck stiffness

Bulging fontanelle

Decreased level of consciousness

Convulsive status epilepticus

Herpes simplex encephalitis

Focal neurological signs

Focal seizures

Decreased level of consciousness

Pneumonia

Tachypnoea (respiratory rate more than 60 breaths per minute, age 0 to 5 months; more than 50 breaths per minute, age 6 to 12 months; more than 40 breaths per minute, age more than 12 months)

Crackles in the chest

Nasal flaring

Chest indrawing

Cyanosis

Oxygen saturation less than or equal to 95%

Urinary tract infection (UTI)

These symptoms and signs increase the likelihood that a UTI is present and should be used to inform a decision about whether urine collection and testing is necessary. They are taken from the section on symptoms and signs in the NICE guideline on urinary tract infection in under 16s

Painful urination (dysuria)

More frequent urination

New bedwetting

Foul smelling (malodorous) urine

Darker urine

Cloudy urine

Frank haematuria (visible blood in urine)

Reduced fluid intake

Shivering

Abdominal pain

Loin tenderness or suprapubic tenderness

Capillary refill longer than 3 seconds

Previous history of confirmed urinary tract infection

Septic arthritis

Swelling of a limb or joint

Not using an extremity

Non-weight bearing

Kawasaki disease [2019]

Fever for 5 days or longer and may have some of the following:

  • bilateral conjunctival injection without exudate

  • erythema and cracking of lips; strawberry tongue; or erythema of oral and pharyngeal mucosa

  • oedema and erythema in the hands and feet

  • polymorphous rash

  • cervical lymphadenopathy

1.3 Management by remote assessment

Remote assessment refers to situations in which a child is assessed by a healthcare professional who is unable to examine the child because the child is geographically remote from the assessor (for example, telephone calls to NHS 111). Therefore, assessment is largely an interpretation of symptoms rather than physical signs. The guidance in this section may also apply to healthcare professionals whose scope of practice does not include the physical examination of a young child (for example, community pharmacists).

Management according to risk of serious illness

1.3.3

Children with any 'red' features but who are not considered to have an immediately life-threatening illness should be urgently assessed by a healthcare professional in a face-to-face setting within 2 hours. [2007]

1.3.4

Children with 'amber' but no 'red' features should be assessed by a healthcare professional in a face-to-face setting. The urgency of this assessment should be determined by the clinical judgement of the healthcare professional carrying out the remote assessment. [2007]

1.3.5

Children with 'green' features and none of the 'amber' or 'red' features can be cared for at home with appropriate advice for parents and carers, including advice on when to seek further attention from the healthcare services (see the section on care at home). [2007, amended 2013]

1.4 Management by the non-paediatric practitioner

In this guideline, a non-paediatric practitioner is defined as a healthcare professional who has not had specific training or who does not have expertise in the assessment and treatment of children and their illnesses. This term includes healthcare professionals working in primary care, but it may also apply to many healthcare professionals in general emergency departments.

Clinical assessment

Management according to risk of serious illness

1.4.2

Children whose symptoms or combination of symptoms and signs suggest an immediately life-threatening illness (see the recommendation on identifying life-threatening features) should be referred immediately for emergency medical care by the most appropriate means of transport (usually 999 ambulance). [2007]

1.4.3

Children with any 'red' features but who are not considered to have an immediately life-threatening illness should be referred urgently to the care of a paediatric specialist. [2007]

1.4.4

If any 'amber' features are present and no diagnosis has been reached, provide parents or carers with a 'safety net' or refer to specialist paediatric care for further assessment. The safety net should be 1 or more of the following:

  • providing the parent or carer with verbal and/or written information on warning symptoms and how further healthcare can be accessed (see the recommendation on advising parents or carers in the section on advice for care at home)

  • arranging further follow-up at a specified time and place

  • liaising with other healthcare professionals, including out-of-hours providers, to ensure direct access for the child if further assessment is required. [2007]

1.4.5

Children with 'green' features and none of the 'amber' or 'red' features can be cared for at home with appropriate advice for parents and carers, including advice on when to seek further attention from the healthcare services (see the section on advice for care at home). [2007, amended 2013]

Tests by the non-paediatric practitioner

1.4.6

Children with symptoms and signs suggesting pneumonia who are not admitted to hospital should not routinely have a chest X-ray. [2007]

1.4.8

When a child has been given antipyretics, do not rely on a decrease or lack of decrease in temperature to differentiate between serious and non‑serious illness. [2017]

Use of antibiotics by the non-paediatric practitioner

1.4.9

Do not prescribe oral antibiotics to children with fever without apparent source. [2007]

1.5 Management by the paediatric specialist

In this guideline, the term paediatric specialist refers to a healthcare professional who has had specific training or has recognised expertise in the assessment and treatment of children and their illnesses. Examples include paediatricians, or healthcare professionals working in children's emergency departments.

Children younger than 5 years

Children younger than 3 months

1.5.2

Infants younger than 3 months with fever should be observed and have the following vital signs measured and recorded:

  • temperature

  • heart rate

  • respiratory rate. [2007]

1.5.4

Perform lumbar puncture in the following children with fever (unless contraindicated):

  • infants younger than 1 month

  • all infants aged 1 to 3 months who appear unwell

  • infants aged 1 to 3 months with a white blood cell count (WBC) less than 5 times 109 per litre or greater than 15 times 109 per litre. [2007, amended 2013]

1.5.5

When indicated, perform a lumbar puncture without delay and, whenever possible, before the administration of antibiotics. [2007]

1.5.6

Give parenteral antibiotics to:

  • infants younger than 1 month with fever

  • all infants aged 1 to 3 months with fever who appear unwell

  • infants aged 1 to 3 months with WBC less than 5 times 109 per litre or greater than 15 times 109 per litre. [2007, amended 2013]

1.5.7

When parenteral antibiotics are indicated for infants younger than 3 months of age, a third-generation cephalosporin (for example cefotaxime or ceftriaxone) should be given plus an antibiotic active against listeria (for example, ampicillin or amoxicillin). [2007]

Children aged 3 months or older

1.5.9

The following investigations should also be considered in children with 'red' features, as guided by the clinical assessment:

  • lumbar puncture in children of all ages (if not contraindicated)

  • chest X-ray irrespective of body temperature and WBC

  • serum electrolytes and blood gas. [2007]

1.5.10

Children with fever without apparent source presenting to paediatric specialists who have 1 or more 'amber' features, should have the following investigations performed unless deemed unnecessary by an experienced paediatrician:

1.5.12

Do not routinely perform blood tests and chest X-rays in children with fever who have no features of serious illness (that is, the 'green' group). [2007]

Viral co-infection

Observation in hospital

1.5.14

In children aged 3 months or older with fever without apparent source, a period of observation in hospital (with or without investigations) should be considered as part of the assessment to help differentiate non-serious from serious illness. [2007]

1.5.15

When a child has been given antipyretics, do not rely on a decrease or lack of decrease in temperature at 1 to 2 hours to differentiate between serious and non-serious illness. Nevertheless, in order to detect possible clinical deterioration, all children in hospital with 'amber' or 'red' features should still be reassessed after 1 to 2 hours. [2013]

Immediate treatment by the paediatric specialist (for children of all ages)

1.5.16

Children with fever and shock presenting to specialist paediatric care or an emergency department should be:

  • given an immediate intravenous fluid bolus of 10 ml/kg; the initial fluid should normally be 0.9% sodium chloride

  • actively monitored and given further fluid boluses as necessary. [2007]

1.5.17

Give immediate parenteral antibiotics to children with fever presenting to specialist paediatric care or an emergency department if they are:

  • shocked

  • unrousable

  • showing signs of meningococcal disease. [2007]

1.5.19

When parenteral antibiotics are indicated, a third-generation cephalosporin (for example, cefotaxime or ceftriaxone) should be given, until culture results are available. For children younger than 3 months, an antibiotic active against listeria (for example, ampicillin or amoxicillin) should also be given. [2007]

1.5.21

Oxygen should be given to children with fever who have signs of shock or oxygen saturation (SpO2) of less than 92% when breathing air. Treatment with oxygen should also be considered for children with an SpO2 of greater than 92%, as clinically indicated. [2007]

Be aware that some pulse oximeters can underestimate or overestimate oxygen saturation levels, especially if the saturation level is borderline. Overestimation has been reported in people with dark skin. See also the NHS England Patient Safety Alert on the risk of harm from inappropriate placement of pulse oximeter probes.

Causes and incidence of serious bacterial infection

1.5.22

In a child presenting to hospital with a fever and suspected serious bacterial infection, requiring immediate treatment, antibiotics should be directed against Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus influenzae type b. A third-generation cephalosporin (for example, cefotaxime or ceftriaxone) is appropriate, until culture results are available. For infants younger than 3 months, an antibiotic active against listeria (for example, ampicillin or amoxicillin) should be added. [2007]

1.5.23

Refer to local treatment guidelines when rates of bacterial antibiotic resistance are significant. [2007]

Admission to and discharge from hospital

1.5.24

In addition to the child's clinical condition, consider the following factors when deciding whether to admit a child with fever to hospital:

  • social and family circumstances

  • other illnesses that affect the child or other family members

  • parental anxiety and instinct (based on their knowledge of their child)

  • contacts with other people who have serious infectious diseases

  • recent travel abroad to tropical or subtropical areas, or areas with a high risk of endemic infectious disease

  • when the parent or carer's concern for their child's current illness has caused them to seek healthcare advice repeatedly

  • where the family has experienced a previous serious illness or death due to feverish illness which has increased their anxiety levels

  • when a feverish illness has no obvious cause, but the child remains ill longer than expected for a self-limiting illness. [2007]

1.5.25

If it is decided that a child does not need to be admitted to hospital, but no diagnosis has been reached, provide a safety net for parents and carers if any 'red' or 'amber' features are present. The safety net should be 1 or more of the following:

  • providing the parent or carer with verbal and/or written information on warning symptoms and how further healthcare can be accessed (see the recommendation on advising parents or carers in the section on advice for home care)

  • arranging further follow-up at a specified time and place

  • liaising with other healthcare professionals, including out-of-hours providers, to ensure direct access for the child if further assessment is required. [2007]

1.5.26

Children with 'green' features and none of the 'amber' or 'red' features can be cared for at home with appropriate advice for parents and carers, including advice on when to seek further attention from the healthcare services (see the section on advice for home care). [2007, amended 2013]

Referral to paediatric intensive care

1.5.27

Children with fever who are shocked, unrousable or showing signs of meningococcal disease should be urgently reviewed by an experienced paediatrician and consideration given to referral to paediatric intensive care. [2007]

1.5.28

Give parenteral antibiotics to children with suspected meningococcal disease at the earliest opportunity (either benzylpenicillin or a third‑generation cephalosporin). [2007]

1.5.29

Children admitted to hospital with meningococcal disease should be under paediatric care, supervised by a consultant and have their need for inotropes assessed. [2007]

1.6 Antipyretic interventions

Effects of body temperature reduction

1.6.1

Antipyretic agents do not prevent febrile convulsions and should not be used specifically for this purpose. [2007]

Physical interventions to reduce body temperature

1.6.2

Tepid sponging is not recommended for the treatment of fever. [2007]

1.6.3

Children with fever should not be underdressed or over-wrapped. [2007]

Drug interventions to reduce body temperature

1.6.4

Consider using either paracetamol or ibuprofen in children with fever who appear distressed. [2013]

1.6.5

Do not use antipyretic agents with the sole aim of reducing body temperature in children with fever. [2013]

1.6.6

When using paracetamol or ibuprofen in children with fever:

  • continue only as long as the child appears distressed

  • consider changing to the other agent if the child's distress is not alleviated

  • do not give both agents simultaneously

  • only consider alternating these agents if the distress persists or recurs before the next dose is due. [2013]

1.7 Advice for home care

Care at home

1.7.2

Advise parents or carers looking after a feverish child at home:

  • to offer the child regular fluids (where a baby or child is breastfed the most appropriate fluid is breast milk)

  • how to detect signs of dehydration by looking for the following features:

    • sunken fontanelle

    • dry mouth

    • sunken eyes

    • absence of tears

    • poor overall appearance

  • to encourage their child to drink more fluids and consider seeking further advice if they detect signs of dehydration

  • how to identify a non-blanching rash

  • to check their child during the night

  • to keep their child away from nursery or school while the child's fever persists but to notify the school or nursery of the illness. [2007]

When to seek further help

1.7.3

Following contact with a healthcare professional, parents and carers who are looking after their feverish child at home should seek further advice if:

  • the child has a fit

  • the child develops a non-blanching rash

  • the parent or carer feels that the child is less well than when they previously sought advice

  • the parent or carer is more worried than when they previously sought advice

  • the fever lasts 5 days or longer

  • the parent or carer is distressed, or concerned that they are unable to look after their child. [2007, amended 2019]

Terms used in this guideline

This section defines terms that have been used in a particular way for this guideline. For other definitions see the NICE glossary.

Fever

For the purposes of this guideline, fever was defined as an elevation of body temperature above the normal daily variation.

Social cues

A child's response to social interaction with a parent or healthcare professional, such as response to their name, smiling and/or giggling.

  • National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)